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• • • Hydraulic fracturing (also fracking, fraccing, frac'ing, hydrofracturing or hydrofracking) is a technique in which rock is fractured by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-pressure injection of 'fracking fluid' (primarily water, containing sand or other suspended with the aid of ) into a to create cracks in the deep-rock formations through which,, and will flow more freely. When the is removed from the well, small grains of (either sand or ) hold the fractures open. Hydraulic fracturing began as an experiment in 1947, and the first commercially successful application followed in 1950.

As of 2012, 2.5 million 'frac jobs' had been performed worldwide on oil and gas wells; over one million of those within the U.S. Such treatment is generally necessary to achieve adequate flow rates in,,, and wells. Some hydraulic fractures can form naturally in certain. Hydraulic fracturing is highly controversial in many countries. Its proponents advocate the economic benefits of more extensively accessible. Argue that these are outweighed by the potential, which include risks of and contamination, and, and the triggering of, along with the consequential hazards to public health and the environment.

Increases in following hydraulic fracturing along dormant or previously unknown are sometimes caused by the deep-injection disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback (a byproduct of hydraulically fractured wells), and produced formation brine (a byproduct of both fractured and nonfractured oil and gas wells). For these reasons, hydraulic fracturing is under international scrutiny, restricted in some countries, and banned altogether in others. The European Union is drafting regulations that would permit the controlled application of hydraulic fracturing. A fracturing operation in progress Mechanics [ ] Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently becomes suppressed by due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation.

This suppression process is particularly significant in 'tensile' () fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure. Fracturing occurs when is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock. The minimum becomes tensile and exceeds the of the material.

Fractures formed in this way are generally oriented in a plane perpendicular to the minimum principal stress, and for this reason, hydraulic fractures in well bores can be used to determine the orientation of stresses. In natural examples, such as dikes or vein-filled fractures, the orientations can be used to infer past states of stress. Veins [ ] Most mineral systems are a result of repeated natural fracturing during periods of relatively high. The impact of high pore fluid pressure on the formation process of mineral vein systems is particularly evident in 'crack-seal' veins, where the vein material is part of a series of discrete fracturing events, and extra vein material is deposited on each occasion. One example of long-term repeated natural fracturing is in the effects of seismic activity. Stress levels rise and fall episodically, and earthquakes can cause large volumes of water to be expelled from fluid-filled fractures. Skype Premium Free Download Full Version Latest For Windows 7. Download Psikotest Pdf more.

This process is referred to as 'seismic pumping'. Dikes [ ] Minor intrusions in the upper part of the, such as dikes, propagate in the form of fluid-filled cracks.